•  Contents.....v

•  Preface to the Fourth Edition.....xix

•  Preface to the Third Edition.....xxiii

•  Preface to the Second Edition.....xxvii

•  Preface to the First Edition.....xxix

•  Foreword to the First Edition.....xxxi

•  About the Author.....xxxiii

[+] I: Design: Theory and Practice.....1          [+] 1 An Overview of Gas Turbines.....3                         Gas Turbine Cycle in the Combined Cycle or Cogeneration Mode.....3                         Gas Turbine Performance.....6                         Gas Turbine Design Considerations.....11                   [+] Categories of Gas Turbines.....15                             Frame Type Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines.....16                             Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbines.....30                             Industrial-Type Gas Turbines.....39                             Small Gas Turbines.....42                             Vehicular Gas Turbines.....44                             Microturbines.....50                   [+] Major Gas Turbine Components.....51                             Compressors.....51                             Regenerators/Recuperators.....57                             Fuel Type.....59                             Combustors.....61                             Environmental Effects.....62                   [+] Turbine Expander Section.....76                             Radial-Inflow Turbine.....76                             Mixed-Flow Turbine.....77                             Axial-Flow Turbines.....78                         Materials.....80                         Coatings.....83                         Gas Turbine Heat Recovery.....83                   [+] Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems.....85                             Instrumentation and Controls.....87          [+] 2 Theoretical and Actual Cycle Analyses.....89                         The Brayton Cycle.....89                         Regeneration Effect.....92                   [+] Increasing the Work Output of the Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine.....95                             Intercooling and Reheating Effects.....95                   [+] Actual Cycle Analysis.....98                             The Simple Cycle.....98                             The Split-Shaft Simple Cycle.....100                             The Regenerative Cycle.....101                             The Inter-cooled Simple Cycle.....102                             The Reheat Cycle.....103                             The Inter-cooled Regenerative Reheat Cycle.....105                             The Steam Injection Cycle.....105                             The Evaporative Regenerative Cycle.....109                             The Brayton–Rankine Cycle.....110                         Summation of Cycle Analysis.....113                   [+] A General Overview of Combined-Cycle Plants.....114                             Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycle.....121                   [+] Power Augmentation.....122                             Inlet Cooling.....122                             Injection of Compressed Air, Steam, or Water.....124                   [+] Inlet Cooling Techniques.....124                             Evaporative Cooling of the Turbine.....124                             Refrigerated Inlets for the Gas Turbines.....125                             Combination of Evaporative and Refrigerated Inlet Systems.....127                             Thermal Energy Storage Systems.....128                   [+] Injection of Compressed Air, Steam, or Water for Increasing Power.....128                             Mid-Compressor Flashing of Water.....128                             Injection of Humidified and Heated Compressed Air.....129                             Combination of Evaporative Cooling and Steam Injection.....131                         Summation of the Power Augmentation Systems.....132                         Bibliography.....137          [+] 3 Compressor and Turbine Performance Characteristics.....139                   [+] Aerothermodynamics of Turbomachinery.....139                             Ideal Gas.....140                             Dry- and Wet-bulb Temperatures.....144                             Optical and Radiation Pyrometers.....148                             Ideal Gas Laws.....149                             Compressibility Effect.....150                   [+] Aerothermal Equations.....153                             Continuity Equation.....153                             Momentum Equation.....154                             Energy Equation.....156                   [+] Efficiencies.....157                             Adiabatic Thermal Efficiency.....158                             Polytropic Efficiency.....161                         Dimensional Analysis.....163                   [+] Compressor Performance Characteristics.....166                             Turbine Performance Characteristics.....167                             Gas Turbine Performance Computation.....167                         Bibliography.....176          [+] 4 Performance and Mechanical Standards.....177                   [+] Major Variables for a Gas Turbine Application.....177                             Type of Application.....177                             Plant Location and Site Configuration.....179                             Plant Type.....180                             Gas Turbine Size and Efficiency.....180                             Type of Fuel.....180                             Enclosures.....183                             Plant Operation Mode: Base or Peaking.....184                             Start-Up Techniques.....184                         Performance Standards.....184                         ASME PTC 19.1: Test Uncertainty.....185                         ASME PTC 19.3: Part 3: Temperature Measurement Instruments and Apparatus.....185                         ASME PTC 19.5: Flow Measurement, Published 2004.....186                         PTC 19.10: Flue and Exhaust Gas Analyses, Part 10.....187                         ASME PTC 19.11: Steam and Water Sampling, Conditioning, and Analysis in the Power Cycle.....187                         ASME PTC 19.23: Guidance Manual for Model Testing, Published 1980.....188                   [+] ASME PTC 46: Performance Test Code on Overall Plant Performance, Published January 1, 1996.....188                             Object and Scope.....188                   [+] Performance Test Code on Gas Turbines.....190                             ASME PTC 22, Published 2006.....190                             ASME Measurement of Exhaust Emissions from Stationary Gas Turbine Engines B133.9, Published 1994.....190                             ASME PTC 36 Measurement of Industrial Sound (ASME B133.8),Published 2004.....191                   [+] Mechanical Parameters.....191                             ASME B 133.2 Basic Gas Turbines, Published 1977 (Reaffirmed: 1997).....192                             ASME B133.3 Procurement Standard for Gas Turbine Auxiliary Equipment, Published 1981 (Reaffirmed 1994).....192                             ASME B133.4 Gas Turbine Control and Protection Systems, Published 1978 (Reaffirmed: 1997).....192                             ASME B133.5 Procurement Standard for Gas Turbine Electrical Equipment, Published 1978 (Reaffirmed: 1994).....193                             ASME B 133.7M Gas Turbine Fuels, Published 1985 (Reaffirmed: 1992).....193                             ASME B133.8 Gas Turbine Installation Sound Emissions, Published 1977 (Reaffirmed: 1989).....193                             ASME B133.9 Measurement of Exhaust Emissions from Stationary Gas Turbine Engines, Published: 1994.....193                             API Std 616 Gas Turbines for the Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, Fourth Edition, August 1998.....194                             API Std 613 Special Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, Fourth Edition, June 1995.....194                             API Std 614 Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing, and Control-Oil Systems and Auxiliaries for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry ........194                             API Std 618, Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, Fourth Edition, June 1995.....195                             API Std 619, Rotary-Type Positive Displacement Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, ........195                             ANSI/API Std 670 Vibration, Axial-Position, and Bearing-Temperature Monitoring Systems, Third Edition, November 1993.....195                             API Std 671, Special Purpose Couplings for Petroleum,Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, Third Edition, October 1998.....195                             API Std 677, General-Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, Second Edition, July 1997 ... .....196                   [+] Application of the Mechanical Standards to the Gas Turbine.....196                             Gears.....203                             Lubrication Systems.....205                             Vibration Measurements.....206                             Specifications.....208          [+] 5 Rotor Dynamics.....215                   [+] Mathematical Analysis.....215                             Undamped Free System.....217                             Damped System.....218                             Forced Vibrations.....222                             Design Considerations.....224                   [+] Application to Rotating Machines.....226                             Rigid Supports.....226                             Flexible Supports.....228                         Critical Speed Calculations for Rotor Bearing Systems.....230                   [+] Electromechanical Systems and Analogies.....232                             Forces Acting on a Rotor-Bearing System.....233                             Rotor-Bearing System Instabilities.....236                             Self-Excited Instabilities.....239                         Campbell Diagram.....244                         Bibliography.....250

[+] II: Major Components.....251          [+] 6 Centrifugal Compressors.....253                   [+] Centrifugal Compressor Components.....254                             Inlet Guide Vanes.....260                             Impeller.....262                             Inducer.....264                             Centrifugal Section of an Impeller.....267                             Causes of Slip in an Impeller.....269                             Stodola Slip Factor.....272                             Stanitz Slip Factor.....273                             Diffusers.....274                             Scroll or Volute.....275                   [+] Centrifugal Compressor Performance.....278                             Rotor Losses.....279                             Stator Losses.....281                   [+] Compressor Surge.....283                             Effects of Gas Composition.....289                             External Causes and Effects of Surge.....290                             Surge Detection and Control.....291                   [+] Process Centrifugal Compressors.....292                             Compressor Configuration.....295                             Impeller Fabrication.....298                         Bibliography.....299          [+] 7 Axial-Flow Compressors.....303                         Introduction.....303                         Blade and Cascade Nomenclature.....306                         Elementary Airfoil Theory.....309                         Laminar-Flow Airfoils.....311                         Energy Increase.....313                         Velocity Triangles.....313                         Degree of Reaction.....315                         Radial Equilibrium.....319                         Diffusion Factor.....320                         The Incidence Rule.....321                         The Deviation Rule.....323                   [+] Compressor Operation Characteristics.....328                             Compressor Surge.....328                   [+] Compressor Choke.....331                             Compressor Stall.....331                             Individual Blade Stall.....332                             Rotating Stall.....332                             Stall Flutter.....333                         Compressor Performance Parameters.....337                         Performance Losses in an Axial-Flow Compressor.....340                         New Developments in Axial-Flow Compressors.....342                   [+] Axial-Flow Compressor Research.....344                             Cascade Tests.....345                             Blade Profile.....345                         Compressor Blade Material.....351                         Acknowledgments.....354                         Bibliography.....355          [+] 8 Radial-Inflow Turbines.....357                         Hydraulic Radial-Inflow Turbines.....357                   [+] Radial-Inflow Turbines for Gas Applications.....358                             Turbine Configurations.....361                         Thermodynamic and Aerodynamic Theory.....368                         Turbine Design Considerations.....374                         Performance of a Radial-Inflow Turbine.....376                         Losses in a Radial-Inflow Turbine.....380                         Radial-Inflow Turbine Applications.....381                         Bibliography.....383          [+] 9 Axial-Flow Turbines.....385                         Turbine Geometry.....385                   [+] Thermodynamic and Aerodynamic Theory.....387                             Utilization Factor.....391                             Degree of Reaction.....391                             Work Factor.....392                   [+] Velocity Diagrams.....393                             Zero-Exit Swirl Diagram.....393                             Impulse Diagram.....394                             Symmetrical Diagram.....394                         Impulse Turbine.....394                   [+] Turbine Blade Cooling Concepts.....401                             Convection Cooling.....405                             Impingement Cooling.....405                             Film Cooling.....405                             Transpiration Cooling.....405                             Water/Steam Cooling.....405                   [+] Turbine Blade Cooling Design.....406                             Convection and Impingement Cooling/Strut Insert Design.....406                             Film and Convection Cooling Design.....406                             Transpiration Cooling Design.....408                             Multiple Small-Hole Design.....408                             Water-Cooled Turbine Blades.....410                             Steam-Cooled Turbine Blades.....412                             Cooled-Turbine Aerodynamics.....412                             Turbine Losses.....420                         Bibliography.....425          [+] 10 Combustors.....427                         Gas Turbine Combustors.....427                   [+] Typical Combustor Arrangements.....429                             Can-Annular and Annular Combustors.....429                             Silo-Type Combustors.....431                             Combustion in Combustors.....431                             The Diffusion-Type Combustor.....432                   [+] Air-Pollution Problems in a Diffusion Combustor.....443                             Smoke.....443                             Oxides of Nitrogen.....443                             NOx Prevention.....445                   [+] Diffusion Combustor Design.....448                             The Diffusion Combustor.....448                         Flame Stabilization.....452                         Combustion and Dilution.....452                         Film Cooling of the Liner.....453                         Fuel Atomization and Ignition.....453                   [+] The Dry Low Emission Combustors.....455                             Primary.....467                             Lean–Lean.....468                             Premix Transfer.....468                             Piloted Premix.....468                             Premix.....469                             Tertiary Full-Speed No Load (FSNL).....469                         Silo-Type Combustors.....477                         Operation of DLN/DLE Combustors.....479                   [+] Catalytic Combustion and Combustors.....481                             Features of Catalytic Combustion.....481                   [+] Catalytic Combustor Design.....483                             Preburner.....484                             Main Fuel Injector.....484                             Catalytic Reactor.....484                         Transition Pieces.....487

[+] III: Materials, Fuel Technology, and Fuel Systems.....491          [+] 11 Materials.....493                   [+] General Metallurgical Behaviors in Gas Turbines.....496                             Creep and Rupture.....496                             Ductility and Fracture.....497                             Cyclic Fatigue.....498                             Thermal Fatigue.....498                             Corrosion.....499                   [+] Gas Turbine Materials.....503                             Turbine Wheel Alloys.....505                         Compressor Blades.....507                   [+] Forgings and Non-destructive Testing.....508                             Ceramics.....508                   [+] Coatings.....509                             Shroud Coatings.....513                             Future Coatings.....513                         Bibliography.....514          [+] 12 Fuels.....515                         Fuel Specifications.....519                   [+] Fuel Properties.....521                             Liquid Fuels.....521                         Liquid Fuel Handling and Treatment.....523                         Heavy Fuels.....531                         Fuel Gas Handling and Treatment.....535                         Equipment for Removal of Particulates and Liquids from Fuel Gas Systems.....540                         Fuel Heating.....542                   [+] Cleaning of Turbine Components.....543                             Hot Section Wash.....544                             Compressor Washing.....545                         Fuel Economics.....546                         Operating Experience.....548                         Heat Tracing of Piping Systems.....549                   [+] Types of Heat-Tracing Systems.....550                             Stream Tracing Systems.....550                             Electric Tracing.....551                   [+] Storage of Liquids.....552                             Atmospheric Tanks.....552                             Elevated Tanks.....552                             Open Tanks.....552                             Fixed Roof Tanks.....552                             Floating Roof Tanks.....552                             Pressure Tanks.....553                         Bibliography.....553

[+] IV: Auxiliary Components and Accessories.....555          [+] 13 Bearings and Seals.....557                   [+] Bearings.....557                             Rolling Bearings.....557                             Journal Bearings.....563                         Bearing Design Principles.....565                         Tilting-Pad Journal Bearings.....569                         Bearing Materials.....572                         Bearing and Shaft Instabilities.....573                         Thrust Bearings.....573                         Factors Affecting Thrust-Bearing Design.....577                         Thrust-Bearing Power Loss.....578                         Seals.....578                   [+] Non-contacting Seals.....579                             Labyrinth Seals.....579                             Ring (Bushing) Seals.....583                         Mechanical (Face) Seals.....585                   [+] Mechanical Seal Selection and Application.....589                             Product.....590                             Additional Product Considerations.....592                             Seal Environment.....592                             Seal Arrangement Considerations.....593                             Equipment.....593                             Secondary Packing.....593                             Seal-Face Combinations.....593                             Seal Gland Plate.....593                             Main Seal Body.....594                         Seal Systems.....594                         Associated Oil System.....595                   [+] Dry Gas Seals.....596                             Tandem Dry Gas Seals.....599                             Tandem Dry Gas Seal with Labyrinth.....599                             Double Gas Seals.....600                             Operating Range of Dry Gas Seals.....600                             Dry Gas Seal Materials.....601                             Dry Gas Seal Systems.....601                             Dry Gas Seal Degradation.....601                         Bibliography.....603          [+] 14 Gears.....605                         Gear Types.....607                   [+] Factors Affecting Gear Design.....608                             Pressure Angle.....609                             Helix Angle.....611                             Tooth Hardness.....612                             Scuffing.....613                             Gear Accuracy.....613                             Types of Bearings.....614                             Service Factor.....614                             Gear Housings.....615                             Lubrication.....615                   [+] Manufacturing Processes.....616                             Hobbing.....616                             Hobbing and Shaving.....616                             Hobbing and Lapping.....618                             Grinding.....618                         Gear Rating.....619                         Gear Noise.....619                         Installation and Initial Operation.....620                         Gear Failures.....622                         Acknowledgement.....624                         Bibliography.....625

[+] V: Installation, Operation, and Maintenance.....627          [+] 15 Lubrication.....629                   [+] Basic Oil System.....629                             Lubrication Oil System.....629                             Seal Oil System.....634                         Lubrication Management Program.....636                         Lubricant Selection.....637                         Oil Contamination.....637                         Filter Selection.....638                         Cleaning and Flushing.....640                   [+] Oil Sampling and Testing.....641                             Oil Analysis Tests.....641                         Test Profiles.....646                         Gearboxes.....646                         Clean Oil Systems.....647                         Coupling Lubrication.....648                         Bibliography.....649          [+] 16 Spectrum Analysis.....651                   [+] Vibration Measurement.....656                             Displacement Transducers.....657                             Velocity Transducers.....657                             Acceleration Transducers.....658                             Dynamic Pressure Transducers.....658                         Taping Data.....659                         Interpretation of Vibration Spectra.....660                         Subsynchronous Vibration Analysis Using RTA.....664                         Synchronous and Harmonic Spectra.....668                         Bibliography.....672          [+] 17 Balancing.....675                         Rotor Imbalance.....675                   [+] Balancing Procedures.....680                             Orbital Balancing.....681                             Modal Balancing.....682                             Multiplane Balancing (Influence Coefficient Method).....683                         Application of Balancing Techniques.....686                         User's Guide for Multiplane Balancing.....688                         Bibliography.....690          [+] 18 Couplings and Alignment.....693                   [+] Gear Couplings.....695                             Oil-Filled Couplings.....698                             Grease-Packed Couplings.....699                             Continuously Lubricated Couplings.....699                             Gear Coupling Failure Modes.....700                         Metal Diaphragm Couplings.....701                         Metal Disc Couplings.....704                         Turbomachinery Uprates.....705                         Curvic Couplings.....709                   [+] Shaft Alignment.....710                             The Shaft Alignment Procedure.....711                         Bibliography.....718          [+] 19 Control Systems and Instrumentation.....721                   [+] Control Systems.....721                             Start-up Sequence.....728                   [+] Condition Monitoring Systems.....730                             Requirements for an Effective Diagnostic System.....732                         Monitoring Software.....733                   [+] Implementation of a Condition Monitoring System.....735                             Plant Power Optimization.....736                             Online Optimization Process.....737                   [+] Life Cycle Costs.....739                             Diagnostic System Components and Functions.....741                             Data Inputs.....741                             Instrumentation Requirements.....741                             Typical Instrumentation (Minimum Requirements for Each Machine).....742                             Desirable Instrumentation (Optional).....742                             Criteria for the Collection of Aerothermal Data.....742                             Pressure Drop in Filter System.....745                             Temperature and Pressure Measurement for Compressors and Turbines.....745                   [+] Temperature Measurement.....746                             Thermocouples.....746                             Resistive Thermal Detectors.....747                             Pyrometers.....747                         Pressure Measurement.....748                   [+] Vibration Measurement.....748                             Vibration Instrumentation Selection.....750                             Selection of Systems for Analyses of Vibration Data.....750                   [+] Auxiliary System Monitoring.....751                             Fuel System.....751                             Torque Measurement.....752                             Baseline for Machinery.....752                             Data Trending.....754                   [+] The Gas Turbine.....756                             Identification of Losses.....759                             Compressor Aerothermal Characteristics and Compressor Surge.....759                   [+] Failure Diagnostics.....760                             Compressor Analysis.....760                             Combustor Analysis.....761                             Turbine Analysis.....762                             Turbine Efficiency.....764                   [+] Mechanical Problem Diagnostics.....765                             Data Retrieval.....767                         Summary.....767                         Bibliography.....768          [+] 20 Gas Turbine Performance Test.....769                         Introduction.....769                         Performance Codes.....770                   [+] Flow Straighteners.....771                             Pressure Measurement.....771                             Temperature Measurement.....774                             Flow Measurement.....775                         Gas Turbine Test.....777                   [+] Gas Turbine.....778                             Air Inlet Filter Module.....779                             Compressor Module.....779                             Combustor Module.....780                             Expander Module.....781                             Life Cycle Consideration of Various Critical Hot Section Components.....782                         Performance Curves.....782                   [+] Performance Computations.....782                             General Governing Equations.....783                             Gas Turbine Performance Calculation.....786                         Gas Turbine Performance Calculations.....792                         Correction Factors for Gas Turbines.....793                   [+] Vibration Measurement.....796                             Rotor Dynamics.....796                             Vibration Measurements.....796                   [+] Emission Measurements.....797                             Emissions.....797                         Plant Losses.....800                         Bibliography.....802          [+] 21 Maintenance Techniques.....803                   [+] Philosophy of Maintenance.....803                             Maximization of Equipment Efficiency and Effectiveness.....805                             Organization Structures for a Performance-Based Total Productive Maintenance Program.....807                             Implementation of a Performance-Based Total Productive Maintenance.....808                             Maintenance Department Requirements.....810                   [+] Training of Personnel.....810                             I. Type of Personnel.....810                             II. Types of Training.....811                   [+] Tools and Shop Equipment.....814                             Spare Parts Inventory.....814                             Condition and Life Assessment.....815                             Availability and Reliability.....815                             Redesign for Higher Machinery Reliability.....817                         Gas Turbine Start-up.....819                   [+] Redesign for Higher Machinery Reliability.....821                             Advanced Gas Turbines.....821                             Axial-Flow Compressor.....822                             Dry Low NOx Combustors.....823                             Axial-Flow Turbine.....826                             Maintenance Scheduling.....827                             Maintenance Communications.....829                             Inspection.....831                         Long-Term Service Agreements.....833                   [+] Borescope Inspection.....835                             Maintenance of Gas Turbine Components.....841                             Compressors.....843                             Compressor Cleaning.....850                             Compressor Water Wash.....851                             Different Wash Systems.....853                             On-Line Wash Cleaning System.....853                             Off-Line Crank Wash Cleaning System.....853                             On-Line and Off-Line Water Wash Fluids.....856                             Off-Line Crank Wash Procedure.....857                             Combustors.....858                             Turbines.....861                         Rejuvenation of Used Turbine Blades.....866                         Rotor Dynamic System Characteristics.....869                   [+] Bearing Maintenance.....870                             Clearance Checks.....877                             Thrust-Bearing Failure.....877                         Coupling Maintenance.....880                   [+] Repair and Rehabilitation of Turbomachinery Foundations.....880                             Installation Defects.....881                             Increasing Mass and Rigidity.....882                         Bibliography.....883          [+] 22 Case Histories.....885                         Axial-Flow Compressors.....886                   [+] Combustion Systems.....897                             Transition Piece.....902                         Axial-Flow Turbines.....902

[+] Appendix: Equivalent Units.....923                Length.....923                Area.....923                Volume.....923                Density.....923                Angular.....924                Time.....924                Speed.....924                Force, Mass.....924                Pressure.....924                Energy and Power.....925                Entropy, Specific Heat, Gas Constant.....926                Universal Gas Constant.....926                Miscellaneous Constants.....927

[+] Index.....929                A.....929                B.....932                C.....933                D.....937                E.....938                F.....939                G.....941                H.....942                I.....943                J.....944                K.....944                L.....944                M.....945                N.....947                O.....947                P.....948                R.....949                S.....951                T.....953                U.....955                V.....955                W.....956                Z.....956

•  CONTENTS .....c

•  PREFACE .....d

•  List of Contributors .....iv

[+] CHAPTER 1 Numerical and Experimental Studies on Multiphase Flow in Stirred Tanks .....3                INTRODUCTION .....3          [+] TWO-PHASE FLOW IN STIRRED TANKS .....4                   [+] Mathematic Model.....4                             Interphase Force .....5                             Transport Equations for k and ε .....7                             Source Terms and Diffusion Coefficients .....8                   [+] Numerical Method .....11                             Impeller Modeling .....11                             Solution of Model Equations .....12                             Boundary Conditions .....13                   [+] Gas-Liquid Flow in Stirred Tanks .....13                             Flow Field Structure .....14                             Gas Holdup Distribution .....16                             Simulation of Flooding .....16                             Energy Dissipation Feature .....17                   [+] Solid-Liquid Flow in Stirred Tanks .....17                             Solid-Liquid Flow with a Radial Flow Impeller .....18                             Numerical Prediction of Critical Impeller Speed.....19                             Solid-Liquid Flow with an Axial Flow Impeller .....20                             Liquid-Liquid Flow in Stirred Tanks .....22          [+] THREE-PHASE FLOW IN STIRRED TANKS .....25                         Liquid-Liquid-Solid Flow .....25                         Measurement of Phase Holdup .....25                         Investigation on Interphase Mass Transfer .....25                         Prediction of Flow Field and Phase Distribution .....26                         Dispersion in Gas-Liquid-Liquid Stirred Tanks .....27                         Dispersion and Phase Separation of Liquid-Liquid-Liquid Systems .....28          [+] SURFACE AERATED STIRRED TANKS .....28                   [+] Novel Surface Aeration Configurations .....28                             Self-Rotating and Floating Baffle (SRFB) .....29                             Self-Rotating Flow Guide (SRFG) .....30                   [+] Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Multi-Impeller in Surface Aerators .....30                             Mass Transfer Coefficient .....31                             Power Consumption .....31                   [+] Gas Holdup in Surface Aerated Stirred Tanks .....32                             Experimental Results of Gas Holdup .....32          [+] MACROMIXING AND MICROMIXING.....36                   [+] Macromixing .....36                             Numerical Simulation in Single-Phase Systems .....36                             Effect of Parameters and Conditions on Mixing Time .....36                             Residence Time Distribution (RTD) .....37                             Mixing Time in a Gas-Liquid Stirred Tank .....37                   [+] Micromixing .....38                             Mathematical Model .....39                             Simulation of the Flow Field .....39          [+] SUMMARY AND PERSPECTIVE .....44                   [+] Algebraic Stress Model (ASM) .....45                             Mathematic Model .....45                             Velocity Field Prediction .....46                         Large Eddy Simulation (LES) .....46                ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .....47                NOMENCLATURE .....47                REFERENCES .....48

[+] CHAPTER 2 Two-Phase Flow Pressure Change Across Sudden Contraction and Expansion in Small Channels .....55                INTRODUCTION .....55          [+] REVIEW OF LITERATURE .....56                         Single-phase Pressure Loss Coefficient .....56                         Two-Phase Pressure Change across Sudden Contraction .....60                         Two-Phase Pressure Change across Sudden Expansion .....64                EXPERIMENTAL SETUP .....70          [+] RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .....72                         Pressure Change Across Sudden Contraction .....72                         Pressure Change across Sudden Expansion .....74                SUMMARY .....75                NOMENCLATURE .....77                REFERENCES .....78                APPENDIX CALCULATION EXAMPLES .....80

[+] CHAPTER 3 Coalescence of Drops in Liquid .....84                INTRODUCTION .....84                FLOCCULATION AND COALESCENCE OF DROPS .....86          [+] ROLE OF INTERMOLECULAR AND SURFACE FORCES ON COALESCENCE OF DROPS .....89                         van der Waals Force .....90                         Electrostatic Double Layer Force .....94                         Hydration and Steric Forces .....98          [+] THIN LIQUID FILMS IN EMULSIONS .....99                         Disjoining Pressure Model of Thin Liquid Films .....102                         Stability of Thin Liquid Films .....103          [+] FILM DRAINAGE THEORIES OF COALESCENCE .....104                         Models Without Consideration of Surfactant at the Interfaces .....104                         Adsorption of Surfactants at LiquidLiquid Interfaces .....108                         Film Drainage Models Considering the Presence of Surfactant at the Interfaces .....111                STOCHASTIC THEORY OF COALESCENCE .....113                COALESCENCE IN INDUSTRIAL EQUIPMENT .....121                EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES FOR STUDYING COALESCENCE OF DROPS .....122                SUMMARY .....123                NOMENCLATURE .....124                ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .....126                REFERENCES .....126                APPENDIX 1: SMOLUCHOWSKI’S THEORY OF KINETICS OF COAGULATION .....131                APPENDIX 2: THE HAMAKER CONSTANT .....133

[+] CHAPTER 4 Carbon Capture and Storage with a Focus on Capillary Trapping as a Mechanism to Store Carbon Dioxide in Geological Porous Media .....135                INTRODUCTION .....135                STRATIGRAPHIC/STRUCTURAL TRAPPING .....139                DISSOLUTION TRAPPING .....140                MINERAL TRAPPING .....142                CAPILLARY TRAPPING .....143                CONCLUSIONS .....147                NOMENCLATURE .....148                REFERENCES .....148

[+] CHAPTER 5 Discrete Particle Model for Dense Gas-Solid Flows .....151                INTRODUCTION .....151          [+] GOVERNING EQUATIONS .....153                         Gas Phase Hydrodynamics .....153                         Dispersed Phase Hydrodynamics .....155          [+] NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF DPM .....157                         Discretization of Gas Phase Equations .....158                         Void Fraction Calculation .....161                         Particle Locating Algorithm .....169                         Handling Collision Events .....170                         Implicit Two-Phase Coupling .....176                MODEL'S APPLICATION TO CYLINDRICAL CFB RISER .....178                MODEL'S APPLICATION TO FLAT SPOUTED BED .....181                REFERENCES .....184

[+] CHAPTER 6 Experimental Study of Water Boiling in Microchannel .....188          [+] INTRODUCTION .....188                         Motivation and Applications .....188                         Objectives of the Present Work .....190                LITERATURE SURVEY .....190          [+] EXPERIMENTAL SETUP .....192                         Fabrication of Microchannel and Microheater .....192                         Characterization of Flow in Microchannel .....194                         Micro-Heater Characterization .....196                         Data Reduction .....197                         Two-Phase Pressure Drop Characteristics in Microchannels .....198                         Pressure Drop Characteristics in Trapezoidal Silicon Microchannels .....198                         Discussion on Pressure Drop .....201                         Comparison with Correlations .....201                         Comparison with Annular Flow Model .....203                         Discussion on Pressure Maxima in Two Phase Flow .....205                         Effect of Aspect Ratio on Pressure Drop .....206                         Results from Annular Flow Model .....208                         Experimental Results .....208                         Discussion on Effect of Aspect Ratio .....209                         Instability in Two Phase Flow .....212          [+] MEASUREMENT OF VOID FRACTION .....215                   [+] Image Processing Technique .....216                             Identification of Vapor Region .....216                             Definition of Regimes .....216                         Flow Regime Map .....217                         Void Fraction .....220                         Frequency of Occurrence of Flow Regimes .....221                         Heat Transfer Coefficient .....222          [+] CONCLUSIONS .....224                         Future Scope of Work .....225                NOMENCLATURE .....226                REFERENCES .....227

[+] CHAPTER 7 Flow Pattern, Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer Coefficient for Evaporative Refrigerants in Horizontal Small Tubes .....230          [+] INTRODUCTION .....230                         Background and Objective .....230                         Experimental Working Refrigerants .....231                         Flow Boiling Pressure Drop in Small Tubes .....234                         Flow Boiling Heat Transfer in Small Tubes .....234          [+] EXPERIMENTAL ASPECT .....235                         Experimental Apparatus and Method .....235          [+] DATA REDUCTION .....237                         Pressure Drop .....237                         Heat Transfer Coefficient .....239          [+] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .....240                         Flow Pattern .....240                         Effect on Pressure Drop .....246                   [+] Comparison of Pressure Drop .....249                             Comparison of the Current Experimental Pressure Drop .....249                             Pressure Drop Comparison with Some Existing Correlations .....249                   [+] Heat Transfer Coefficient .....255                             Effect on Heat Transfer Coefficient .....255                             Effect of Saturation Temperature on Heat Transfer Coefficient .....259                             Effect of Inner Tube Diameter on Heat Transfer Coefficient .....259                   [+] Comparison of Heat Transfer Coefficient .....262                             Comparison of the Current Experimental Heat Transfer Coefficient.....262                             Heat Transfer Coefficient Comparison with Some Existing Correlations .....264                             Heat Transfer Coefficient Comparison with some Existing Correlations .....265          [+] PRESSURE DROP AND BOILING HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT CORRELATIONS .....268                         Development of Pressure Drop Correlation .....268                         Development of Heat Transfer Coefficient Correlation .....270                CONCLUSIONS .....274                NOMENCLATURE .....275                REFERENCES .....277

[+] CHAPTER 8 Flashing-Induced Density Wave Oscillations in a Boiling Natural Circulation System.....280          [+] INTRODUCTION .....280                         Instability Classification .....280                         Type-I and Type-II Instabilities .....281                         Flashing-Induced Instability .....281          [+] EXPERIMENTAL FACILITY, SIRIUS-N .....282                         Thermal-Hydraulic Loop .....282                         Experimental Procedure .....282                         Void Fraction Estimation .....284          [+] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS .....286                         Signal Time Traces .....286                         Stability Maps for Different Pressures .....286                INSTABILITY MECHANISM .....290          [+] COMPARISON WITH OTHER KINDS OF INSTABILITIES .....291                         Geysering .....291                         Flow Pattern Transition Instability .....292                         Natural Circulation Oscillation .....293                         Type-1 Instability .....294                STABILITY BOUNDARY FOR HIGHER SUBCOOLING .....295                CONCLUDING REMARKS .....296                ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .....297                NOMENCLATURES .....297                REFERENCES .....298

[+] CHAPTER 9 Nonlinear Dynamic Characteristics of Bubbling Fluidization .....300                INTRODUCTION .....300                EXPERIMENTAL DATA .....304                SOURCES OF PRESSURE FLUCTUATIONS .....304          [+] PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS .....307                         R/S Analysis .....307                         Average Cycle Frequency.....308                         Fourier Analysis .....310          [+] DETECTING STATIONARITY .....311                         State Space and Embedding Theory .....312                         Embedding Parameters .....313                   [+] Time Delay .....313                             Autocorrelation Function .....314                             Mutual Information .....314                   [+] Embedding Dimension .....314                             Correlation Dimension .....315                             Nonlinear Dynamical Invariants .....320                             Detecting Nonlinearity .....324                CONCLUSIONS .....326                NOMENCLATURE .....326                REFERENCES .....327

•  Contents.....v

•  Preface.....xix

•  Acknowledgements.....xxi

[+] Part 1 - Understanding ReliabilityParameters and Costs.....1          [+] CHAPTER 1 - The History of Reliabilityand Safety Technology.....3                         1.1 - Failure Data.....3                         1.2 - Hazardous Failures.....5                         1.3 - Reliability and Risk Prediction.....5                         1.4 - Achieving Reliability and Safety-Integrity.....8                         1.5 - The RAMS Cycle.....9                         1.6 - Contractual and Legal Pressures.....11          [+] Chapter 2 - Understanding Terms and Jargon.....13                         2.1 - Defining Failure and Failure Modes.....13                         2.2 - Failure Rate and Mean Time Between Failures.....15                         2.3 - Interrelationships of Terms.....17                         2.4 - The Bathtub Distribution.....20                         2.5 - Down Time and Repair Time.....22                         2.6 - Availability, Unavailability and Probability of Failure on Demand.....24                         2.7 - Hazard and Risk-Related Terms.....25                         2.8 - Choosing the Appropriate Parameter.....26                         n - Exercises.....27          [+] chapter 3 - A Cost-Effective Approach to Quality,Reliability and Safety.....29                         3.1 - Reliability and Optimum Cost.....29                         3.2 - Costs and Safety.....33                         3.3 - The Cost of Quality.....34

[+] Part 2 - Interpreting Failure Rates.....39          [+] CHAPTER 4 - Realistic Failure Rates andPrediction Confidence.....41                         4.1 - Data Accuracy.....41                         4.2 - Sources of Data.....43                         4.3 - Data Ranges.....48                         4.4 - Confidence Limits of Prediction.....52                         4.5 - Manufacturers’ Data.....54                         4.6 - Overall Conclusions.....55          [+] Chapter 5 - Interpreting Data andDemonstrating Reliability.....57                         5.1 - The Four Cases.....57                         5.2 - Inference and Confidence Levels.....57                         5.3 - The Chi-Square Test.....59                         5.4 - Understanding the Method in More Detail.....62                         5.5 - Double-Sided Confidence Limits.....63                         5.6 - Reliability Demonstration.....63                         5.7 - Sequential Testing.....68                         5.8 - Setting Up Demonstration Tests.....69                         n - Exercises.....70          [+] Chapter 6 - Variable Failure Rates andProbability Plotting.....71                         6.1 - The Weibull Distribution.....71                         6.2 - Using the Weibull Method.....73                         6.3 - More Complex Cases of the Weibull Distribution.....81                         6.4 - Continuous Processes.....82                         Exercises.....83

[+] Part 3 - Predicting Reliability and Risk.....85          [+] Chapter 7 - Basic Reliability Prediction Theory.....87                         7.1 - Why Predict RAMS?.....87                         7.2 - Probability Theory.....88                         7.3 - Reliability of Series Systems.....91                         7.4 - Redundancy Rules.....92                         7.5 - General Features of Redundancy.....98                         Exercises.....101          [+] Chapter 8 - Methods of Modeling.....103                         8.1 - Block Diagrams and Repairable Systems.....103                         8.2 - Common Cause (Dependent) Failure.....111                         8.3 - Fault Tree Analysis.....118                         8.4 - Event Tree Diagrams.....126          [+] Chapter 9 - Quantifying the Reliability Models.....133                         9.1 - The Reliability Prediction Method.....133                         9.2 - Allowing for Diagnostic Intervals.....135                         9.3 - FMEA (Failure Mode and Effect Analysis).....137                         9.4 - Human Factors.....140                         9.5 - Simulation.....147                         9.6 - Comparing Predictions with Targets.....153          [+] chapter 10 - Risk Assessment (QRA).....155                         10.1 Frequency and Consequence.....155                         10.2 Perception of Risk, ALARP and Cost per Life Saved.....156                         10.3 Hazard Identification.....164                         10.4 Factors to Quantify.....169

[+] Part 4 - Achieving Reliabilityand Maintainability.....177          [+] Chapter 11 - Design and Assurance Techniques.....179                         11.3 Environmental Stress Protection.....184                         11.4 Failure Mechanisms.....185                         11.5 Complexity and Parts.....187                         11.6 Burn-In and Screening.....189                         11.7 Maintenance Strategies.....190          [+] Chapter 12 - Design Review, Test and Reliability Growth.....191                         12.1 Review Techniques.....191                         12.2 Categories of Testing.....192